Optimal Dose Escalation Using Deep Reinforcement Learning.

RLescalation

Overview

The purpose of this RLescalation package is to easily construct an dose escalation rule that directly optimizes the percentages of correct selection (PCS) of the maximum tolerated dose (MTD). Several high-level functions are also provided to make it easy to perform simulation studies.

Installation

You can install the stable version from CRAN as follows.

install.packages("RLescalation")

You can install the development version from GitHub as follows.

# install.packages("remotes")
remotes::install_github("MatsuuraKentaro/RLescalation")

Example

We demonstrate computing an optimal dose escalation by reinforcement learning for the example in Sect. 3 of the original paper.

When you load RLescalation as follows, Python itself and the Python packages to conduct reinforcement learning will be installed.

library(RLescalation)

Learn a dose escalation rule

We obtain an optimal dose escalation rule by executing learn_escalation_rule() with the number of doses J and the target DLT probability target (please see help("learn_escalation_rule") for other arguments).

escalation_rule <- learn_escalation_rule(
  J = 6, target = 0.25, epsilon = 0.04, delta = 0.1,
  N_total = 36, N_cohort = 3, seed = 123,
  rl_config = rl_config_set(iter = 1000)
)

escalation_rule
#> <EscalationRule>
#> dir: escalation_rules/20250101_162633
#> created at: 2025-01-01 17:43:23
#> call:
#> learn_escalation_rule(J = 6, target = 0.25, epsilon = 0.04, delta = 0.1, 
#>     N_total = 36, N_cohort = 3, seed = 123, rl_config = rl_config_set(iter = 1000))
#> iterations: 1000
#> checkpoints: 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000

With the default settings, it takes roughly 5-20 seconds per iter, so it would take about 1.5-6 hours when iter = 1000.

How to use the escalation rule

To compute optimal action using the obtained escalation rule, pass the current dose index (i.e., one of 1, 2, …, J) and data of the number of assigned patients and DLTs for each dose to opt_action().

current_dose <- 3
some_Ns   <- c(3, 6, 3, 0, 0, 0)
some_DLTs <- c(0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0)

escalation_rule$opt_action(current_dose, some_Ns, some_DLTs)
#> [1] "up"

If the returned action is MTD_1, …, MTD_J, or no_MTD (stop the trial because of toxicity), it means the end of the trial.

How to evaluate the escalation rule

A convenient high-level function (simulate_one_trial) is provided to evaluate the obtained escalation rule. The following is an example of code to perform a simulation study similar to Sect. 3 of the original paper.

eval_scenarios <- list(
  c(0.04, 0.05, 0.09, 0.14, 0.15, 0.24),
  c(0.07, 0.16, 0.23, 0.27, 0.34, 0.55),
  c(0.34, 0.42, 0.46, 0.49, 0.58, 0.62),
  c(0.05, 0.08, 0.11, 0.15, 0.60, 0.72)
)

n_sim <- 1000  # the number of simulated clinical trials
sim_list <- list()

for (scenarioID in seq_len(length(eval_scenarios))) {
  prob_true <- eval_scenarios[[scenarioID]]
  for (simID in seq_len(n_sim)) {
    sim_one <- simulate_one_trial(escalation_rule, prob_true, seed = simID)
    sim_list[[length(sim_list) + 1]] <- data.frame(
      scenarioID = scenarioID, simID = simID, sim_one, check.names = FALSE)
  }
}

d_sim <- do.call(rbind, sim_list)
head(d_sim, 13)
#>    scenarioID simID cohortID dose N DLT recommended
#> 1           1     1        1    1 3   0          up
#> 2           1     1        2    2 3   0          up
#> 3           1     1        3    3 3   0          up
#> 4           1     1        4    4 3   1          up
#> 5           1     1        5    5 3   0          up
#> 6           1     1        6    6 3   2        stay
#> 7           1     1        7    6 3   2        stay
#> 8           1     1        8    6 3   1        stay
#> 9           1     1        9    6 3   1        stay
#> 10          1     1       10    6 3   0        stay
#> 11          1     1       11    6 3   0        stay
#> 12          1     1       12    6 3   0       MTD_6
#> 13          1     2        1    1 3   0          up

The following code is an example of calculating the PCS.

library(dplyr)

MTD_true <- list("MTD_6", c("MTD_3", "MTD_4"), "no_MTD", "MTD_4")

d_res <- d_sim |> 
  filter(cohortID == max(cohortID), .by = c(scenarioID, simID)) |> 
  rowwise() |>
  mutate(correct = if_else(recommended %in% MTD_true[[scenarioID]], 1, 0)) |>
  ungroup() |> 
  summarise(PCS = mean(correct), .by = scenarioID)

d_res
#> # A tibble: 4 × 2
#>   scenarioID   PCS
#>        <int> <dbl>
#> 1          1 0.833
#> 2          2 0.731
#> 3          3 0.411
#> 4          4 0.531

Tips

Custom scenarios for reinforcement learning

If you want to use custom scenarios for reinforcement learning, you can pass the custom scenarios by specifying the argument rl_scenarios in learn_escalation_rule function.

my_scenarios <- list(
  prob = list(c(0.05, 0.11, 0.25, 0.31, 0.32, 0.40), 
              c(0.23, 0.27, 0.45, 0.47, 0.50, 0.57),
              c(0.38, 0.40, 0.43, 0.47, 0.51, 0.55)),
  MTD = list(3, c(1, 2), -1),  # -1 means "no MTD"
  weight = c(1, 2, 1)
)

escalation_rule <- learn_escalation_rule(
  J = 6, target = 0.25, epsilon = 0.04, delta = 0.1,
  N_total = 36, N_cohort = 3, seed = 123,
  rl_config = rl_config_set(iter = 1000),
  rl_scenarios = my_scenarios
)

See the return of compute_rl_scenarios() for details.

What to do if the learning is unstable

If an error occurs during reinforcement learning, please try the following.

• Use checkpoint before the error (see below)
• Change seed in learn_escalation_rule()
• Try Linux or WSL instead of Windows because Ray on Windows is currently in beta
• Reduce sgd_minibatch_size in rl_config_set() to 100L

The obtained dose escalation rules may overfit some scenarios, so that the MTD cannot be estimated correctly at all in some other scenarios. In such cases, please try the following.

• Change checkpoint (see below)
• Change seed in learn_escalation_rule()
• Try custom scenarios

How to use Escalation Rule Class

The escalation_rule above is an object of the Escalation Rule Class (R6). Here is a brief explanation of how to use it.

Save the escalation rule

The obtained escalation rule can be saved using saveRDS, a standard R function.

saveRDS(escalation_rule, file = "escalation_rule.RDS")

To load it, use readRDS.

escalation_rule <- readRDS(file = "escalation_rule.RDS")

Inputs of learn_escalation_rule function

The inputs passed to the learn_escalation_rule function can be retrieved as follows.

escalation_rule$input

Obtain returns during reinforcement learning

The statistics of returns during reinforcement learning can be retrieved as follows.

escalation_rule$log

Resume learning

Reinforcement learning can be resumed with the following function.

escalation_rule$resume_learning(iter = 100)

Use checkpoint

Multiple checkpoints are created by learn_escalation_rule function. By default, the last checkpoint is used to build an escalation rule. If you want to build another escalation rule using another checkpoint, specify the directory name created by learn_escalation_rule function as follows.

another_escalation_rule <- EscalationRule$new(dir = "checkpoints/20250101_162633_00900")