Exact Derivatives via Automatic Differentiation.

nabla

Arbitrary-order exact derivatives at machine precision

nabla provides a single composable operator D that differentiates any R function to any order — exactly, at machine precision, through loops, branches, and all control flow:

library(nabla)
f <- function(x) x[1]^2 * exp(x[2])

D(f, c(1, 0))                # gradient
D(f, c(1, 0), order = 2)     # Hessian
D(f, c(1, 0), order = 3)     # 2×2×2 third-order tensor
D(f, c(1, 0), order = 4)     # 2×2×2×2 fourth-order tensor

Each application of D adds one dimension to the output. D(D(f)) gives the Hessian, D(D(D(f))) gives the third-order tensor, and so on — no limit on order, no loss of precision, no symbolic algebra.

Why nabla?

Finite differences lose precision at higher orders (each order multiplies the error). Symbolic differentiation suffers from expression swell. nabla composes D via nested dual numbers — each order is as precise as the first.

Installation

# Install from CRAN
install.packages("nabla")

# Or install development version from GitHub
remotes::install_github("queelius/nabla")

The D operator

D is the core of nabla. It differentiates any function f and returns a new function — which can itself be differentiated:

f <- function(x) x[1]^2 * x[2] + sin(x[2])

Df   <- D(f)          # first derivative (function)
DDf  <- D(Df)         # second derivative (function)
DDDf <- D(DDf)        # third derivative (function)

Df(c(3, 4))           # gradient vector
DDf(c(3, 4))          # Hessian matrix
DDDf(c(3, 4))         # 2×2×2 tensor

Equivalently, evaluate directly at a point:

D(f, c(3, 4))              # gradient
D(f, c(3, 4), order = 2)   # Hessian
D(f, c(3, 4), order = 3)   # third-order tensor

gradient(), hessian(), and jacobian() are convenience wrappers:

gradient(f, c(3, 4))       # == D(f, c(3, 4))
hessian(f, c(3, 4))        # == D(f, c(3, 4), order = 2)

How it works

A dual number extends the reals with an infinitesimal ε where ε² = 0:

$$f(x + \varepsilon) = f(x) + f'(x),\varepsilon$$

For higher orders, nabla nests dual numbers: a dual whose components are themselves duals. Each level of nesting extracts one additional order of derivative — so D(D(D(f))) propagates through triply-nested duals to produce exact third derivatives. This works through lgamma, psigamma, trig functions, and all of R's math — no special cases needed.

Use cases

• Optimization — supply exact gradients to optim() and nlminb()
• Maximum likelihood — Hessians for standard errors, third-order tensors for asymptotic skewness of MLEs
• Sensitivity analysis — how outputs change with respect to inputs
• Taylor approximation — exact coefficients to any order
• Curvature analysis — second-order geometric properties

Vignettes

• Introduction to nabla — dual numbers, arithmetic, composition, comparison with finite differences
• MLE Workflow — gradient, Hessian, Newton-Raphson on statistical models
• Higher-Order Derivatives — the D operator, curvature, Taylor expansion
• Higher-Order MLE Analysis — third-order derivative tensors and asymptotic skewness of MLEs
• Optimizer Integration — using gradient() and hessian() with optim() and nlminb()

License

MIT.